Introduction to New England Colonial Architecture

When the British landed on the shores of the New World, they not only brought place names from England (e.g., Portsmouth, Salisbury, Manchester), but the colonists also carried the knowledge of building traditions and architectural styles. The religious separatists we call Pilgrims arrived in 1620, quickly followed by a group of Puritans in 1630, who settled in what became the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Using whatever materials they could find, the immigrants constructed timber-framed houses with steep roofs. Other settlers from Great Britain spread throughout Massachusetts, Connecticut, New Hampshire, and Rhode Island, building rustic dwellings like the ones they had known in their homeland. They colonized land that became New England. The earliest dwellings were likely hastily-constructed sheds and cabins — the recreation of the Plymouth Colony shows us this. Then, shoring up against the cold New England winters, colonists built single-story Cape Cod houses with massive chimneys placed at the center. As families grew, some colonists built larger two-story homes, still to be seen in communities like  Strawbery Banke on the New Hampshire coast. Colonists expanded their living space and protected their property with sloping saltbox roof additions, named after the shape of boxes used to store salt. The Daggett Farmhouse, built in Connecticut around 1750, is a good example of the saltbox roof style. Wood was plentiful in the northeastern forests of the New World. The English people who colonized New England grew up with architecture from late medieval and Elizabethan England. The British colonists were not far removed from the reign of Queen Elizabeth I and medieval timber-framed houses, and they continued these building practices through the 1600s and well into the 1700s. The 1683 Parson Capen House in Topsfield, Massachusetts is a good example of Elizabethan architecture in New England. Since these simple homes were made of wood, many burned down. Only a few have survived intact, and fewer still have not been remodeled and expanded. New England Colonial Types Styles Architecture in Colonial New England went through many phases and can be known by various names. The style is sometimes called post-medieval, late medieval, or first period English. A New England Colonial home with a sloping, shed-like roof is often called a Saltbox Colonial. The term Garrison Colonial describes a New England Colonial home with a second story that juts out over the lower level. The historic 1720 Stanley-Whitman House in Farmington, Connecticut is described as a post-medieval style, because of its second-story overhang, but a later lean-to addition transformed the  Garrison Colonial into one with a saltbox-style roof. It did not take long for colonial styles of architecture to combine to form new designs. Modern Colonials Builders often imitate historic styles. You may have heard words like New England Colonial, Garrison Colonial, or Saltbox Colonial used to describe modern-day homes. Technically, a house built after the American Revolution — after communities were no longer colonies of England — is not colonial. More correctly, these homes of the 19th and 20th centuries are Colonial Revival or Neocolonial. Northern versus Southern Colonial Houses Early New England colonial houses were usually located mostly along the shores of Massachusetts, Connecticut, New Hampshire, and Rhode Island. Remember that Vermont and Maine were not part of the 13 original colonies, although much of the architecture is similar, modified by French influences from the north. Northern colonial homes were wood framed construction, usually the plentiful white pine, with clapboard or shingle siding. Early homes were one story, but as more family arrived from Britain these starter homes became two-stories, often with steep roofs, narrow eaves, and side gables. A large, center fireplace and chimney would heat upstairs and downstairs. Some homes added the luxury of saltbox-shaped lean-to additions, used to keep wood and supplies dry. New England architecture was inspired by the beliefs of the inhabitants, and the Puritans tolerated little exterior ornamentation. The most decorative were the post-medieval styles, where the second story slightly protruded ove r the lower floor and the small casement windows would have diamond-shaped panes. This was the extent of decorative design. Beginning with the Jamestown Colony in 1607, New England, Middle, and Southern Colonies were established up and down the eastern coastline of what would become the United States. Settlers in southern regions such as Pennsylvania, Georgia, Maryland, the Carolinas, and Virginia also constructed uncomplicated, rectangular homes. However, a Southern Colonial home is often made with brick. Clay was plentiful in many southern regions, which made brick a natural building material for southern colonial homes. Also, homes in the southern colonies often had two chimneys — one on each side — instead of a single massive chimney in the center. Tour New England Colonial Homesteads The New England Colonial home of Rebecca Nurse was built in the 17th century, making this giant red house a true Colonial. Rebecca, her husband, and her children moved here to  Danvers, Massachusetts around 1678. With two rooms on the first floor and two rooms on the second, a large chimney runs through the center of the main house. A kitchen lean-to addition with its own chimney was built in about 1720. Another addition was constructed in 1850. The Rebecca Nurse house has its original floors, walls, and beams. However, like most homes from this period, the house has been extensively restored. The lead restoration architect was Joseph Everett Chandler, who also oversaw the historic restorations at the Paul Revere House in Boston and the House of Seven Gables in Salem. Rebecca West is an interesting figure in American history for being a victim of the Salem Witch Trials—in 1692 she was accused, tried, and executed for practicing witchcraft. Like many historic homes throughout New England, the Rebecca Nurse Homestead is open to the public for tours. Many of New Englands finest colonial homes are open to the public. The Hoxie House in Sandwich, Massachusetts was built in 1675 and is said to be the oldest house still standing on Cape Cod. The Jethro Coffin House, built in 1686, is the oldest house on Nantucket.  The home of author Louisa May Alcott, Orchard House in Concord, Massachusetts, is a good example of farmhouses built between 1690 and 1720. The town of Salem, Massachusetts is a museum itself, with the House of Seven Gables (1668) and the Jonathan Corwin House (1642), also known as the Witch House, being two popular tourist attractions.  A Boston home built in 1680 and once owned by American patriot Paul Revere is a popular post-medieval style to view. Lastly, Plimoth Plantation is the Disney-equivalent of 17th century New England living, as the visitor can experience an entire village of the primitive huts that started it all. Once you get a taste of Colonial American house styles, youll know some of what has made Ame rica strong. COPYRIGHT: The articles you see on these pages are copyrighted. You may link to them, but do not copy them in a blog, web page, or print publication without permission. Sources Architecture of New England and the Southern Colonies by Valerie Ann Polino, http://teachersinstitute.yale.edu/curriculum/units/1978/4/78.04.03.x.html [accessed July 27, 2017]English Colonial Domestic Architecture of New England by Christine G. H. Franck, https://christinefranck.wordpress.com/2011/05/13/english-colonial-domestic-architecture-of-new-england/ [accessed July 27, 2017]Architectural Style Guide, Historic New England, https://www.historicnewengland.org/preservation/for-homeowners-communities/your-old-or-historic-home/architectural-style-guide/#first-period-post-medieval [accessed July 27, 2017]Virginia and Lee McAlester. A Field Guide to American Houses, 1984Lester Walker. American Shelter: An Illustrated Encyclopedia of the American Home, 1998John Milnes Baker, AIA. American House Styles: A Concise Guide, Norton, 1994Architectural Style Guide, Boston Preservation Alliance, http://www.bostonpreservation.org/advocacy/architectural-style-guide.html [accessed July 27, 2017]

The Age Of Reason Or Known As The Enlightenment - 1189 Words

Before the Romantic Movement it was the Age of Reason or commonly known as the Enlightenment period. The Enlightenment was a period of scientific rationalization and scientific methods, it was an advanced way of observing the world. This time period rejected the idea’s of the church and celebrated the rational mind. Many of the enlightenment thinkers, â€Å" believed in rationalism and trusted human reason to solve the many problems of life and society, and emphasized reason, science, and respect for humanity (69 Apush ).† Enlightenment thinkers adopted the ideas of John Locke, who, emphasized on natural rights. However, in the early nineteenth century Romantic Movement began in art and literature. This movement focused on intuition and individualism. Romantics of this era did not believe in organized institution, such as, church. governmental bodies, and more importantly they rejected the idea science methods and rational approach to understanding life. Instead,  " Romanticism emphasized the individual, the subjective, the irrational, the imaginative, the personal... (sparknote).† However, one theme was most common, individualism. Individualism is, â€Å" †¦ political and social philosophy that emphasizes the moral worth of the individual (Lukes).† Along with this, the Romantic movement came with a wave of romantic writers, such as, John Stuart Mill. Mill in particular identified with self-consciousness or individualism. His concept of individualism presented itself in his writings,Show MoreRelated Age of Reason Essay example1161 Words   |  5 Pages An Age of Reason â€Å"Those who can make you believe absurdities can make you commit atrocities.† This brief quotation was spoken by the famous writer and philosopher Voltaire; I believe it vaguely points out that some people are full of absurd ideas, and for others to follow such nonsense is foolish. 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A product that is free of controversy Free Essays

The portable oxygen cylinders are filled with liquefied oxygen. Mostly used for medical purposes or in areas with scarce or no oxygen like under water or at high levels above the ground i.e. We will write a custom essay sample on A product that is free of controversy or any similar topic only for you Order Now aerospace. Medically, oxygen gas is used in the treatment of gas poisoning, pneumonia, used as an anesthetic when mixed with nitrous oxide or administered in deficiency of oxygen (Rees, Dudley, 2006). Liquefied oxygen is pale blue in color, and has a density of 1.141g/cm3. The liquid has a boiling point of -182.96oC and a freezing point of -222.65oC. Its raw material is oxygen which is obtained from natural air by a process know as fractional distillation.   At 20oC the liquid gas has an expansion rate of 860:1 (O’Leary, 2000). Fractional distillation is done in a factory with boilers this makes the laborers to work at very cold environments which are highly flammable. Natural air is made up of different gases which has different evaporation or freezing points. The natural air is first liquefied to be liquid air which has a mixture of liquid nitrogen and liquid oxygen with boiling points of (-196oC) and (-183oC) respectively. Liquid air is heated to -183oC which oxygen evaporate, it’s tapped and liquefied again now as Oxygen liquid which is then packed in high pressure cylinders for distribution. Most of the cylinders meet minimum requirements of weighing 5 pounds and under and usually last up to 5 hours or more (Portableoxygen, 2009). The cylinders administer oxygen in pulses through a device know as a conserver which delivers a pulse of oxygen when the user inhales. Ethical considerations of the product are; the liquefied gas is highly explosive and flammable hence it use for industrial purposes. Due to its properties of being highly flammable and explosive some people mix it with powdered charcoal to make explosives which are lethal. The product should be produced the way its being done but its distributions should be controlled and sold only to authorized dealers and users to minimize its use to prepare explosives. References O’Leary, D. (2000). Oxygen O2: Retrieved on Mar 22, 2009 from http://www.ucc.ie/academic/chem/dolchem/html/elem/elem008.html Portableoxygen, (2009). Portable Oxygen: Weights Durations: Retrieved on Mar 22, 2009 from http://www.portableoxygen.org/weightsand%20durations.html Rees, P Dudley, F. (2006). Provision of oxygen at home. British Medical Journal. 317(7163): 935–938. How to cite A product that is free of controversy, Papers

Both Stakeholder and Legitimacy Theory-Free-Samples for Students

Questions: 1.Write a report to the Corporate Reporting Manager about two of the more prevalent theories used for evaluating social and environmental (sustainability) accounting are organizationallegitimacyandstakeholder theory. 2.Why would companies have preferred to treat the leases as operating leases (if there is an operating lease then the assets and liabilities associated with leased asset are not shown on the statement of financial position) rather than finance leases (if the lease were a finance lease then the liabilities and assets associated with the lease would be shown on the statement of financial position)? 3.Explain why the change in the accounting standard for leasing might cause Organizations to breach covenants included within debt contracts. 4.Which Organizations would be more likely to lobby against the accounting standard? Answers: 1.Both stakeholder and legitimacy theory have been implemented in order to investigate corporate environmental and social disclosure practices in the developed countries. On one hand, the legitimacy theory primarily depends on the ideology of social contract wherein the organizations seek a positive interconnection with the society in order to make sure that resources are readily available to them. It can be regarded as a common assumption that the activities of an organization are proper, desirable, or effective within some socially established system of beliefs, values, definitions, and values. Furthermore, organizational legitimacy cannot be considered a steady state but instead it is a variable one. Besides, such variability is not temporary in nature but also spatial across cultural and stakeholder groups. Thus, relying on the perception of an organization of their level of legitimacy, an organization can adopt legitimation measures (Richardson Eberlein, 2012). Nevertheless, su ch organizational legitimacy can be enhanced by the utilization of symbolic measures communicating a public image that is aligned with the primary objectives of an organization. On the other hand, the stakeholder theory primarily implies that the organizations prime objective is to establish stakeholder value. The enhancement of the stakeholder value is the major concern of the organization. It is primarily engaged in finding the real stakeholders of the organization and the ways by which they interact and coordinate in order to leave an impact upon the organization (Richardson Eberlein, 2012). In short, it can be commented as a method that will drive the organization and seek betterment of the entire organization. Furthermore, organizations operate with the prior assistance of social contracts that make the stakeholders accessible and eligible to several rights and responsibilities. Besides, it must be taken into consideration that the organizations that are capable in designing a n efficient and adequate link with its stakeholders are more likely to succeed in the competitive market than the others must. Both the theories idealize an organization as a part of a wider social system wherein such organization influences, and is in turn affected by other groups prevailing within the society. While on one hand, the legitimacy theory explains about the anticipations of a society in general, the stakeholder theory on the other hand offers a wider resolution by referring to a specific group in a society (stakeholders). Therefore, the reliance is on a specific group and not the community at large that raise question on the validity of the theory. Moreover, the stakeholder theory accepts the ideology that because distinct groups of stakeholders will have varied perspectives about how an organization must conduct its affairs, there must be several social contracts that are negotiated with such varied groups of stakeholders instead of one single contract with the society in general. Besides, like the stakeholder theory, the legitimacy theory also takes into account the widespread and competing s takeholder groups. The only difference in this scenario is that the stakeholders implied within the legitimacy theory do not have direct links with an organization but are a relevant part of the larger society within which such organization operates (Kruger, 2015). Even though both theories are helpful to the society, yet they possess various deficiencies when it comes to social and environmental practices. The results based on legitimacy theory are often difficult to be quantified and be expressed in monetary terms. Hence, expressing the theory results is a tedious task and leads to complexity. In simple words, such theory generally relies upon indirect aspects. As a result, accounting for such affairs seeks to account for enhancement or prevalence of specific symptoms associated with the performance of particular activities undertaken to maximize the legitimacy of an organization. Such accounting also includes social and environment (sustainability) practices. Similarly, stakeholder theory has more of theoretical particularities that have not been utilized in the explanation of social and environmental accounting. In other words, stakeholder theory is simply inter-related, a multifaceted perspective that embodies the presumptions that are ack nowledged from the aspect of a political economy. This means that the foundation of the theory resides on various theoretical impact and not on a practical one leading to complexity. 2.Organizations often opt to lease long-term assets instead of buying them. Therefore, the decision to lease relies upon various factors like efficient financial terms, keeping assets off the balance sheet, etc. Operating lease offers various advantages that make it the first choice of companies. Firstly, the lesser can retain the ownership of property during and after the term of the lease. Secondly, operating lease minimizes administration for the end-user and allows them to hand the asset back at the end, whilst paying off one single monthly installment (Kwok et. al, 2005). Thirdly, since operating leases are treated as an expense, they remain off the balance sheet, thereby giving the right to lesser to terminate the lease even at shorter notice. 3.The revision of accounting standards can easily have an influence on computations of financial covenants in lending arrangements and other economic In debt contracts, operating leases are not considered as debt but during the revision of accounting standards, such operating leases may shift into the definition of debt. As a result, the amount of debt will be increased that will possess a ripple influence throughout the debt contract (Brown, 2011). Therefore, if revision in accounting standards may cause debt to be enhanced by a larger amount, organizations are more likely to breach covenants that are included in the debt contracts (Gordon et. al, 2012). 4.Organizations that have a potential management and can gain considerably from the potential tax reduction from the accounting method are most likely to lobby against the accounting standard. The management of such organization lobby for accounting method as it leads to higher level of income. Further, if the firms security prices are most likely to be influenced from the accounting numbers then they are most likely to lobby (Daske et. al, 2008). The current scenario of big firms clearly indicates that the accounting numbers are majorly responsible for the security prices and hence, management needs to take adequate consideration for the same (Georgiou, 2004). References Brown, P 2011, International Financial Reporting Standards: How real are the benefits? Accounting and Business Research, pp. 269-285. Daske, H, Hail, L. Leuz, C Verdi, R. S 2008, Mandatory IFRS reporting around the world: Early evidence on the economic consequences, Journal of Accounting Research, Vol. 46, No. 5, pp. 1085-1142. Georgiou, G. 2004, Corporate lobbying on accounting standard methods, timing and perceived effectiveness, Abacus, 40 (2), pp. 219237. Gordon, L. A, Loeb, M. P Zhu, W 2012, The impact of IFRS adoption on foreign direct investment, Journal of Accounting and Public Policy, vol.31, no. 4, pp. 374-398. Kwok, W. C. C. and Sharp, D. 2005, Power and international accounting standard setting evidence from segment reporting and intangible asset projects, Accounting, Auditing and Accountability Journal, vol.18, no. 1, pp. 7499. Richardson, A. J. and Eberlein, B. 2011, Legitimating transnational standard-setting: the case of the International Accounting Standards Board, Journal of Business Ethics, vol. 5, no. 3, pp. 217245. Kruger, P 2015, Corporate goodness and shareholder wealth, Journal of Financial economics, pp. 304-329